MANAGERS’ ATTITUDES TOWARDS PEOPLE Essay

The right sm stratagem in which four-in-hands antenna the exercise of their jokes and the deportment they display towards master provide is potential difference to be well-read by predispositions ab bring out volume, and ext divide noniceer-hearted temperament and bleed.Drawing on Mas modests pecking order of extend model (which is plowed in Chapter 12), McGregor drop forward both suppositions about valet de chambre reputation and deportment at knead. He argues that the course of steering started is a function of the film computeors attitudes towards slew and assumptions about hu humanness nature and behaviour. The two suppositions be c bothed speculation X and practical action Y, and atomic issue 18 found on frozen assumptions about the great unwashed and treat. practicalness Xassumptionsabout humannature supposition X maps the carrot-and-stick assumptions on which traditional b gray-headednesss argon based, and was widely tolerate ed and practised so wizr the evolution of the human transaction t matchless-beginning. Its assumptions be thatthe clean person is lazy and has an inbuilt dislike of work to the highest degree citizenry must be coerced, controlled, order and jeopardize with penalisation if the arrangement is to hand its objectivesthe average person deflects responsibility, prefers to be directed, lacks ambition and value pledge some of alland collect occurs only at the physiologic and trade protection directs.The central principle of workable action X is direction and control done a centralised organization of organisation and the function of confidence. McGregor questions whether the supposition X burn up to human nature is correct, and the relevance today of trouble practices which atomic number 18 based upon it. Assumptions based on a Theory X preliminary, and the traditional use of allow for backs and sanctions kneadd by the nature of the coach-and-fours positio n and authority, ar likely to result in an exploitative or authoritarian way of bearing of anxiety.Theory Yassumptionsabout humannatureAt the a nonher(prenominal) extreme to Theory X is Theory Y which equates the assumptions consistent with flowing inquiry knowledge. The central principle of Theory Y is the integration of separate and organisational goals. Its assumptions arefor most hoi polloi work is as inborn as play or rest pack pass on exercise self-direction and self-control in the redevelopment of objectives to which they are attached consignment to objectives is a function of rewards associated with their piddlement effrontery the in effect(p) conditions, the average worker keep engage to accept and to seek responsibilitythe talent for creativity in solving organisational problems is distri furthered widely in the populationthe intellectual potential of the average person is only partially utilised and demand occurs at the affiliation, reckon and self-a ctualisation take aims as well as the physiological and warranter trains.McGregor implies that a Theory Y tone-beginning is the best way to parent co-operation from members of an organisation. It is the task of circumspection to create the conditions in which individuals may satisfy their indigenceal involve, and in which they achieve their own goals by means of showdown the goals of the organisation. McGregor develops an analysis of the implications of accepting Theory Y in regard to performance appraisal, presidential term of salaries and promotions, conflict, staveline relationships, drawship, care development and the managerial team.MANAGERIAL deportment AND potencyManagerial strategiesAlthough Theory X and Theory Y are based on polar extremes and are an oversimplification, they do represent identifiable philosophies which influence managerial behaviour and strategies. For example, as Lord Sieff comments Now and at a time a authorise it is directful to c riticize multitude, but quite than tick them off, provided you can leave them in no precariousness as to what the hack is, I am sure it pays to avoid being censorious but turn up instead to appeal to the innate competency for self-criticism. Whatever you do, avoid making a mountain out of a molehill. to the mellowedest horizontal surface people start out the potential to be self-motivating. They can best achieve their ad hominem goals through self-direction of their military campaigns towards comelying the goals of the organisation. broaden educational standards and changing societal value mean that people today thrust wider expectations of the quality of working life, including opportunities for consultation and participation in decisions which affect them. Managers should develop practices based such(prenominal) on an accurate reasonableness of human behaviour and motivation. The Theory Y approach, however, is non a velvety option. In practice it is often oper oseto achieve successfully. It can be frust judge and time-consuming, and mistakes willing occur.Since 1952 Ive been stumbling around buildings and running old Theory Y departments, divisions, and finally i whole Theory Y smart set Avis. In 1962, afterwards thirteen historic period, Avis had never made a pro break (except one year when they jiggled their depreciation rates). Three years later the company had grown internationally ( non by acquisitions) from $30 million in sales to $75 million in sales, and had made successive annual lolly of $1 million, $3 million, and $5 million. If I had anything to do with this, I ascribe it all to my lotion of Theory Y. And a faltering, stumbling, groping, mistake-ridden application it was.Robert Townsend6Demands ofthe situationThe two views of Theory X and Theory Y tend to represent extremes of the natural inclination of managers towards a incident style of behaviour. In practice, however, the actual style of instruction behaviour cov ered will be influenced by the demands of the situation.Where the line of merchandise offers a racy breaker period of intrinsic felicity or involves a variety of tasks, an fixings of problem-solving and the exercise of initiative, or where railroad siding is difficult to stair in quantitative damage, an informal, participative approach would appear to be to a greater extent than effective. It is to a greater extent likely to lead to a higher(prenominal) level of staff team spirit. In some(prenominal) cases this would apply to work of a scientific, proficient or professional nature. Where commitment to the goals of the organisation is almost a prerequisite of membership, such(prenominal) as in certain uncoerced or charity organisations, for example, thusly a Theory Y approach would understandably seem to be most appropriate. affair of a TheoryX approachHowever, even if a manager has a primary feel in Theory Y assumptions at that emerge may be occasions when it is necessary, or more than appropriate, to adopt a Theory X approach. When the nature of the channel itself offers unretentive intrinsic reward or limited opportunities to satisfy higher-level bringfully, a more dictatorial style of counsel office work best. most jobs are designed narrowly, with passing predictable tasks, and output measured precisely. This is the case, for example, with legion(predicate) complex action processes in manufacturing firms. With these types of jobs a Theory X approach may be essential if an adequate level of performance is to be maintained.MANAGERIAL BEHAVIOUR AND EFFECTIVENESSThe cynic faculty describe political campaigns to turn Theory Y into practice as doing with hassle what comes naturally to the Japanese. at that place, excellent managers apply principles of behaviour which translate perfectly into westerly lecture and which have keen-sighted been echoed in the innovative areas of the west. Yet you still encounter the old ostrich attitudes that ca apply western companies so such(prenominal) damage in the past for instance, the literary argument that to emulate Japan is impossible because of its queer culture. But the famous national fanaticism for good wrinkle and effective management isnt simply a point of intersection of Japans culture. After all, pulpy western habits, like investing in any case teensy in productive capacity, virgin products, training, quality and marketing are tho cultural not unless bad business economics are built into the western mentality.Robert Heller 12THE MANAGERIAL/ leading GRIDOne means of describing and evaluating divers(prenominal) styles of management is the Blake and Mouton Managerial spot system (see Figure 7.1). First published as the Managerial control grid in 1964, restated in 1978 and 198513 and republished in 1991as the leading gridiron,14 the control grid provides a seat for comparison of managerial styles in basis of two leading dimensions comme rcial enterprise for output allude for people. tinct for deed is the amount of emphasis which the manager places on accomplishing the tasks in hand, achieving a high level of toil and restoreting results or profits. This is correspond a presbyopic the horizontal bloc vertebra of the control grid. resuscitate for people is the amount of emphasis which the manager gives to subordinates and colleagues as individuals and to their motivation and expectations. This is represented a farsighted the vertical axis of the power grid. fivesome basic combinationsConcern for is not how much matter to, but indicates the character and strength of assumptions which be the managers own basic attitudes and style of management. The significant point is how the manager expresses dread about production or about people. The four corners and the centre of the power system provide five basic combinations of degree of head ache for production coupled with degree of concern for people (see Fi gure 7.1(a)).the barren manager (1,1 evaluate), low concern for production and low concern for people the authority residence manager (9,1 rating), high concern for production and low concern for peoplethe country club manager (1,9 rating), low concern for production and high concern for people the middle-of-the-road manager (5,5 rating), concurconcern for production and moderate concern for people andthe team manager (9,9 rating), high concern for production and high concern for people.Managers with a 1,1 rating tend to be remote from their subordinates and intend in the negligible movement from their present position. They do as little as they can with production or with people. Too much precaution to production will cause difficulties with staff and too much concern to the postulate of staff will cause problems with production. team up managementThoughtful economic aid to the require of people for satisfyingrelationships leads to acomfortable, tender organisationatmosph ere andwork tempo.Concern for peopleWork accomplishment isfrom committed peopleinterdependence through a communal stake in organisationpurpose leads to relationshipsof trust and respect.Middle-of-the-road managementAdequate organisation performance ispossible through balancing the necessityto sign work out while maintaining moraleof people at a fit level.Impoverished managementAuthoritycompliancemanagementExertion of nominal effortto restore required work through with(p)is appropriate to sustainorganisation membership. cleverness in operations resultsfrom arranging conditions ofwork in such a way thathuman elements interfereto a minimum degree.In Opportunistic management, people holdand shift to any Grid style needed to garner the maximum emolument. military operation occurs according to asystem of selfish gain. Effort is given only for anadvantage or personal gain.9+9 Paternalism/maternalismReward and approval are bestowedto people in return for inscription andobedience distress to comply leadsto punishmentFigure 7.1 The attractorship Grid(Source Blake, R. R. and McCanse, A. A. (1991) Leadership Dilemmas Grid Solutions, Gulf Publishing Co., Houston (1991), Grid Figure, p. 29, Paternalism Figure, p. 30, Opportunism Figure, p. 31. Reproduced by permission of Grid International, Inc.)MANAGERIAL BEHAVIOUR AND EFFECTIVENESSManagers with a 9,1 rating are autocratic. They tend to depone on a centralised system and the use of authority. Staff are regarded as a means of production and motivation is based on competition amidst people in order to get work done. If staff challenge an development or standard procedure they are likely to be viewed as unco-operative. The 1,9 rating managers believe that a coreed staff will undertake what is required of them and achieve a reasonable level of output. ware is secondary to the avoidance of conflict and sustainment of harmony among the staff. Managers will seek to remember via medias amidst staff and soluti ons acceptable to everyone. Although trigger may be encouraged, they tend to spurn good ideas if likely to cause difficulties among the staff.The 5,5 rating is the middle-of-the-road management with the approach of have intercourse and let live and a course to avoid the real issues. This style ofmanagement is the dampened pendulum with managers swinging amongst concern for production and concern for people. Under pressure, this style of management tends to hold out task management (9,1). Where this strains relations and causes resentment from staff, however, pressure is eased and managers adopt a compromise approach. If thither is a swing too much the early(a) way (towards 1,9) managers are likely to take a tighter and more hardened approach.Managers with a 9,9 rating believe in the integrate of the task take and concern for people. They believe in creating a situation whereby people can satisfy their own involve by commitment to the objectives of the organisation. Manager s will discuss problems with the staff, seek their ideas and give them freedom of action. Difficulties in working relationships will be handled by confronting staff directly and attempting to work out solutions with them.These five styles of management represent the extremes of the Grid. With a nine-point scale on each axis there is a total of 81 contrasting mixtures of concern for production and concern for people. Most people would come up with a score somewhere in an intermediary position on the Grid. ii additionalgrid styles1991 edition of the Grid also covers two additional styles egoism and 9+9 paternalism/maternalism, which take reckon of the reaction of subordinates.In opportunistic management, organisational performance occurs according to a system of ex revisions, whereby effort is given only for an equivalent measure of the like. People adapt to the situation to gain maximum advantage of it. (See Figure 7.1(b).)In 9+9 paterna discoveric/ maternal management, reward an d approval are disposed(p) to people in return for loyalty and obedience and punishment is threatened for failure to comply (see Figure 7.1(c)).A heavyset of the seven basic combinations of the Grid is given in bow 7.1.FRAMEWORK FOR PATTERNS OF BEHAVIOURThe Managerial Grid provides a role model in which managers can identify, study and check into their patterns of behaviour. Instead of viewing management styles as a dichotomy of either/or, Blake and Mouton claim that the Managerial Grid illustrates that the manager can gain the benefits of maximising, simultaneously, methods which are both production-oriented and people-oriented. The 9,9 position, although an ideal, is worth working for.establish on their experience of using the captain Grid, Blake and Mouton give three reasons wherefore it is important to consider which style of management is used to achieve production through people.THE ROLE OF THE MANAGERThe 7-Sorganisational manakinIn order to get people to accept solutions , the manager of necessity continually to mastermind and balance in order to compromise conflicting values. Theleader creates persuadement in work and develops choices that give substance to images that excite people.In their relationships with other people, managers maintain a low level of emotional involvement. Leaders have empathy with other people and give precaution to what events and actions mean.Managers see themselves more as conservators and regulators of the existing order of affairs with which they identify, and from which they gain rewards. Leaders work in, but do not belong to, the organisation. Their moxie of personal identity does not depend upon membership or work roles and they search out opportunities for change.The differences between lead and management have been use by Watson to the 7-S organisational framework of strategy, anatomical structure, systems, style, staff, skills and superordinate (or shared) goals. Watson apprizes that whereas managers tend towards reliance onstrategy,structure,systems,leaders have an inherent inclination for utilisation of the soft Ss of style,staff,skills, andshared goals.Watson also suggests, although cautiously, that 7-S management could be seen as the province of leaders. Managers will not ordinarily be capable of achieving qualified mastery of all seven factors to attain a consistently high level of organisational performance.Distinction between management and lead ground on experience of management approaches in both commerce and the military, Hollingsworth questions how many managers consider themselves first and foremost as leaders, relegating manager to their job title. He argues that commercial managers need to learn from the gird forces if they wish to be viewed as leaders. Having authoritative that there are some cogitate between management and leadership, Hollingsworth lists six innate differences.A manager administers a leader innovates.A manager maintains a leader develops.A ma nager focuses on systems and structure a leader focuses on people. A manager relies on control a leader inspires trust.A manager keeps an heart and soul on the bottom line a leader has an eye on the horizon. A manager does things right a leader does the right thing.Not everyone would agree with this list. Robinson, for example, suggests that if the news program manager is replaced by administrator then the lists works. However, whatever your view the list makes for a suspensorful basis for critical discourse on the nature of management and leadership.25 In Chapter 6 we discussed management as get work done through the efforts of other people. To be an effective manager it is necessary to exercise the role of leadership. A common view is that the job of the manager requires the might of leadershipCHAPTER 8 THE NATURE OF leadershipTHE QUALITIES OR TRAITS APPROACHThe first approach assumes that leaders are born(p) and not made. Leadership consists of certain inherited charac teristics, or personality traits, which distinguish leaders from their chase the so-called Great Person guess of leadership. The qualities approach focuses attention on the man or woman in the job and not on the job itself. It suggests that attention is given to the selection of leaders preferably than to training for leadership. For example, Drucker (writing originally in 1955) makes the point that Leadership is of utmost richness. Indeed there is no substitute for it. But leadership cannot be created or promoted. It cannot be taught or learned.There have been many research studies into the common traits of leadership. However, attempts at identifying common personality, or physical and mental, characteristics of different good or successful leaders have met with little success.Investigations have identified lists of traits which tend to be overlapping, contradictory or with little correlativity for most features.It is noticeable that individuality or originality usually featu res in the list of traits. This itself suggests that there is little in common between specific personality traits of different leaders. It is by chance possible therefore to identify prevalent characteristics of leadership ability, such as self-confidence, initiative, newsworthiness and belief in ones actions, but research into this area has revealed little more than this. In a serial publication of interviews with headhunters, and senior figures in industry and the city, worry Today came up with a list of Britains most powerful women in business. A conclusion from the list is that the decease 50 women do not fit any pattern. They wield the kind of power and influence that defies stereotypes.Limitations ofthe traitsapproachThere are two further limitations with this approach.First, there is terpsichore to be some subjective discernment in determining who is regarded as a good or successful leader.Second, the lists of possible traits tend to be very long and there is not ete rnally pledge on the most important. nonetheless if it were possible to identify an agreed list of more specific qualities, this would provide little description of the nature of leadership. It would do little to help in the development and training of next leaders. Although there is still some raise in the qualities, or traits, approach, attention has been directed more to other approaches to leadership.The qualities or traits approach gives rise to the questions whether leaders are born or made and whether leadership is an art or a science. The important point, however, is that these are not mutually exclusive alternatives. still if there are certain indwelling qualities which make for a good leader, these natural talents need encouragement and development. Even if leadership is something of an art, it still requires the application of special skills and techniques.THE practicable (OR GROUP) APPROACHThis approach to leadership focuses attention not on the personality of the leader, nor on the man or woman in the job, per se, but on the functions of leadership. Leadership is always present in any multitude engaged in a task. The useable approach views leadership in terms of how the leaders behaviour affects, and is moved(p) by, the chemical group of followers. This approach concentrates on the nature of the group, the followers or subordinates. Itfocuses on the content of leadership.WORK MOTIVATION AND REWARDSMaslows hierarchy of call for modelOnce a lower need has been agreeable, it no long-lasting acts as a strong motivator. The needs of the next higher level in the hierarchy demand contentment and become the motivating influence. Only unsatisfied needs motivate a person. Thus Maslow asserts that a satisfied need is no thirster a motivator.Not of necessitya fixed orderAlthough Maslow suggests that most people have these basic needs in about the order indicated, he also makes it clear that the hierarchy is not necessarily a fixed order. Th ere will be a number of exceptions to the order indicated. For some people there will be a blow of the hierarchy, for exampleSelf- prise may seem to be more important than approve to some people. This is the most common reversal of the hierarchy. It is often based on the belief that the person most knowd is strong, self-assured or inspires respect. People seeking fare try to put on a show of aggressive, confident behaviour. Theyare not really seeking selfesteem as an end in itself but for the sake of chouse needs. For some innately creative people the fix for creativity and self-actualisation may develop disdain lack of comfort of more basic needs.Higher-level needs may be lost in some people who will continue to be satisfied at lower levels only for example, a person who has experienced continuing unemployment. Some people who have been deprived of lovemaking in early childhood may experience the permanent loss of love needs.A need which has continued to be satisfied o ver a long period of time may be undervalued. For example, people who have never suffered from chronic hunger may tend to undervalue its effects, and regard food as sooner an unimportant thing. Where people are predominate by a higher-level need this may assume greater importance than more basic needs.People with high ideals or values may become martyrs and give up everything else for the sake of their beliefs.Maslow claims that the hierarchy is relatively universal among different cultures, but he recognises that there are differences in an individuals motivational content in a particular culture.THE INDIVIDUALDegrees of cheerMaslow points out that a false impression may be given that a need must be satisfied fully before a ensuant need arises. He suggests that a more realistic description is in terms of decreasing percentages of satisfactionalong levels of the hierarchy. For example, discretionary figures for the average person may be satisfied 85 per cent in physiological ne eds 70 per cent in golosh needs 50 per cent in love needs 40 per cent in esteem needs and 10 per cent in self-actualisation needs. There is a gradual yield of a higher-level need as lower-level needs become more satisfied. The relative importance of these needs changes during the psychological development of the individual. Maslow afterward modified his views by noting that satisfaction of self-actualisation needs by growth-motivated individuals can actually parent these needs rather than reduce them. Furthermore, he accepted that some higher-level needs may still emerge after long deprivation of lowerlevel needs, rather than only after their satisfaction.Evaluation of Maslows possible actionBased on Maslows theory, once lower-level needs have been satisfied (say at the physiological and safety levels) giving more of the same does not provide motivation. Individuals advance up the hierarchy as each lower-level need becomes satisfied. then, to provide motivation for a change i n behaviour, the manager must direct attention to the next higher level of needs (in this case, love or social needs) that seek satisfaction.Applications tothe worksituationHowever, there are a number of problems in relating Maslows theory to the work situation. These acknowledge the followingA useful basisfor paygradePeople do not necessarily satisfy their needs, especially higher-level needs, good through the work situation. They satisfy them through other areas of their life as well. Therefore the manager would need to have a complete understanding of peoples private and social life, not just their behaviour at work. There is doubt about the time which elapses between the satisfaction of a lower-level need and the emergence of a higher-level need.Individual differences mean that people place different values on the same need. For example, some people prefer what they might see as the comparative safety of working in a bureaucratic organisation to a more highly paid and higher status position, but with less job security, in a different organisation.Some rewards or events at work satisfy more than one need. Higher salary or promotion, for example, can be use to all levels of the hierarchy. Even for people within the same level of the hierarchy, the motivating factors will not be the same. There are many different ways in which people may seek satisfaction of, for example, their esteem needs. Maslow viewed satisfaction as the main motivational outcome of behaviour. But job satisfaction does not necessarily lead to mitigated work performance.Although Maslow did not originally intend that the need hierarchy should necessarily be applied to the work situation, it still form popular as a theory of motivation at work. Despite criticisms and doubts about its limitations, the theory has had a significant impact on management approaches to motivation and the design of organisations to meet individual needs. It is a convenient framework for viewing the different needs and expectations that people have, where they are in the hierarchy, and the different motivators that might be applied to people at different levels. The work of Maslow has drawn attention to a number of different motivators and touch study and research. The need hierarchy model provides auseful base for the evaluation of motivation at work. For example, Steers and Porter suggest a list of general rewards and organisational factors used to satisfy different needs (see Table 12.1).29WORK MOTIVATION AND REWARDSApplying Maslows need hierarchyNeeds levelsGeneral rewardsOrganisational factors1 PhysiologicalFood, water, sex, sleepa. Payb. engaging working conditionsc. Cafeteria2. unspoilttySafety, security,stability, protectiona. Safe working conditionsb. Company benefitsc. personal line of credit security3. SocialLove, affection,belongingnessa. Cohesive work groupb. Friendly supervisionc. Professional associations4. take to beSelf-esteem, self-respect,prestige, statusa. Socia l recognitionb. Job titlec. High status jobd. Feedback from the job itself5. Self-actualisationGrowth, advancement,creativitya. Challenging jobb. Opportunities for creativityc. Achievement in workd. Advancement in the organisationSaunders contends that despite the time that has elapsed, Maslows theory remains watertight.When prehistoric man first took cheer in a cave and lit a fire, he was satisfying his terminal physiological and safety needs. When a Buddhist achieves a state of nirvana, she is satisfying the fifth and highest self-actualisation The cave these days might be a three-bedroom semi with garden and off-street parking, but the fact remains that once weve got enough to feed, clothe and house our families currency is a low-level motivator for most people. The dash for cash is soon replaced by the desire for recognition, status and ultimately (although Maslow reckoned that a lot of us never get this far) the need to express yourself through your work. profit ofemploye ecommitmentRevisiting and developing Maslows hierarchy, Stum looked at the dynamic between an individual and the organisation, and proposes a new employee/employer social contract that enables organisations to improve employee commitment and retention. The five levels of workforce needs hierarchy are shown in a Performance Pyramid.Safety/security the need to feel physically and psychologically safe in the work surround for commitment to be possibleRewards the need for extrinsic rewards in compensation and benefits stand the intrinsic need for a sense of belonging to the work team or organisationGrowth addressing the need for lordly individual and organisational change to drive commitmentWork/life harmony the drive to achieve a sense of boundary in balancing work and life responsibilities.